History of
the study

History of the study of the Mizdakhkan archaeological site

The first step in the study of the Mizdakhkan archaeological site was made by the famous orientalist V. V. Bartold, who, based on the information of Arab geographers describing trade routes in Khorezm, interpreted the ruins near the city of Khodjeyli in Karakalpakstan as the medieval city of Mizdakhkan In his classic work "Turkestan in the era of the Mongol invasion", prepared by him at the beginning of the 20th century, he wrote: "Mizdakhkan is mentioned several times not only by Abulgazi, but even in the history of Khiva in the 19th century. The plateau (kyr) Mizdakhkan is located 1 parasang west of Khodjeyli. Now the grave of the prophet (nabi) Shamun, who is identified with the apostle Peter, is shown here.

In this place are also the ruins of a fortress called Gyaur-kala (Fortress of the infidels) (Bartold. 1963, P.204, Note 5) It is worth noting that V.V. Bartold himself had never been to this area.

Bartold Vasily Vladimirovich
1869-1930

The Mizdakhkan site was first visually surveyed by A. Yu. Yakubovsky in 1928-1929. He agreed with V.V. Bartold on the localization of the city of Mizdakhkan. A.Yu. Yakubovsky described the Gyaur-Kala Site on the Western Hill and noted several architectural monuments, in particular, the Mazlumkhan-Sulu mausoleum, as well as an anonymous mausoleum (Khalifa Erezhep) on the Eastern Hill. A.Yu. Yakubovsky published a stone product, the interpretation of which still causes controversy.

Yakubovsky Alexander Yuryevich
(1886 — 1953)

The researcher proposed a very broad dating of the monuments he saw: 12th-14th cc. Summarizing some of the results of his work, A.Yu. Yakubovsky concludes: “There is no doubt that the two hills, the area between them and the immediate surroundings ... represent an inseparable whole, which was once the city of Mizdakhkan” (Yakubovsky, 1930, p. 581).

The study of the topography of Mizdahkan was revisited in the early 1960s, when V.N. Yagodin conducted topographic measurements (1962, 1964) and aerial photography (1966). As a result, it became possible to reconstruct the general topography of the entire Mizdahkan archaeological complex, which, with clarifications, repeats the historical scheme proposed by A.Yu. Yakubovsky (Yagodin, 1968, pp. 189–197; Yagodin, Khojayov. 1970, p. 10).

Financial support from the US Ambassador’s Fund for Cultural Preservation in 2023 initiated the study of the Khalifa Erezhep monument, including in the system of urban life. This served as the reason behind an attempt to generalize the materials on the history of the entire complex of Mizdakhkan sites (Babajanov, Mkrtychev, 2024, pp. 42-61)

View of the archaeological complex area

Individual topics

Along with the general history of the Site, most researchers, as a rule, dealt with individual topics in the study of Mizdakhkan.

1. The Architecture

V.I. Pilyavsky was the first professional architect who visited Mizdakhkan in 1938. Despite the fact that the main object of his study was the monuments at the nearby Kunya-Urgench Site, he nevertheless visited Mizdakhkan for a short time, where he examined the “fortress” or “citadel” of Gyaur-kala and the "mausoleum" of Mazlumkhan-Sulu (Pilyavsky. 1948).

Further, it was exactly Mazlumkhan-Sulu which received the most attention from architectural researchers. In particular, in 1959 the structure became the object of in-depth work by V. M. Filimonov and S. B. Neumyvaikin. Some of the design features and richness of the interior gave V. M. Filimonov grounds to assume that Mazlumkhan-Sulu was originally a palace-type structure, which later became a mausoleum (Filimonov. 1967, Pp. 62–83).

In the 1960s, residential and utility rooms adjacent to the monument were uncovered. In the mid-1980s, the monument was restored by Moscow restorers (documentary materials of this restoration are still unknown). (Kdyrniyazov O. Sh., Kdyrniyazov M. Sh. 2013, Pp. 192-199).

In 1986–1989, the Khalifa Erezhep site became the object of a comprehensive study by the Research Institute of Restoration (Tashkent).

As a result of this, the following types of work were completed:

architectural analysis of the site and its structures;
analysis of the construction techniques and materials;
archaeological study (seven pits were dug within the boundaries of the site, in front of its facade);
study of the epigraphic materials obtained;
reconstruction design documentation;
adaptation design documentation.

Based on the obtained materials, a “Summary Report. 1989” was drawn up (not published to date). The site restoration was not carried out.

The surroundings of the Khalifa Yeredzhep monument

2.Construction Materials
Renowned expert, Ms. N. S. Grazhdankina analyzed the construction materials of the site of Mizdakhkan monuments (Grazhdankina. 1960).

3. The Archaeology

3.1 Gyaur-Kala

The archaeological study of Mizdakhkan began in the second half of the 20th century in connection with the work of the Khorezm archaeological and ethnographic expedition. It was then that a brief archaeological study of Gyaur-kala was conducted (Tolstov, 1948, P.31)

In the mid-1980s, the task of preserving the Mizdakhkan archaeological site was became offical. The Uzbek Research and Design Institute for the Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Monuments prepared a project dedicated to this. In particular, the project considered the archaeological study of Gyaur-kala (The Mizdakhkan archaeological site. 1986, Pp.14-30).

Subsequently, excavations at Gyaur-kala were carried out by Nukus State University. Based on the results of archaeological work, a number of articles on various detailed topics were published (Turebekov. 2002, Pp. 152–170; Khojaniyazov. 2013, Pp. 69–82)

View of Giaur Kala

The arched tromp of Khalifa Yeredzhep

3.2 Excavations at the Golden Horde city

The relocation of the city in the early 13th century from the place where it had previously been located (Gyaur-kala) to the territory between the Eastern and Western hills was determined by the fact that settlements had already existed here in pre-Mongol times (11th-12th centuries) (Kdyrniyazov M.-Sh. Kdyrniyazov A. 2003, P. 83). Therefore, during the period of stabilization of the Golden Horde state, a city was formed on this plain. Its archaeological study was carried out by the Nukus State University. As a result of many years of research, various objects and structures were identified that characterized the history and typology of the city.

In the eastern part of the Site, the so-called “Eastern Quarter” 1 was excavated (6 houses, 44 rooms, part of a street and an alley were uncovered) (Kdyrniyazov M-Sh. 1989, Pp.25-34).

On the territory of the Golden Horde site, ceramic kilns (roundish plan, two-tiered, with vaulted ceilings) were discovered, as well as wineries (Kdyrniyazov M.-Sh. Kdyrniyazov A. 2003, Pp. 79, 81-83; Kdyrniyazov M.Sh., Iskenderova, Saypov, 2004). Along with residential and utility rooms in the area of the so-called "Southern Site”, a public building (rectangular in plan - 9.8 x 11 m with a flat ceiling, resting on columns) was excavated, too. Researchers interpreted the building as a Jami Mosque (Kdyrniyazov M.-Sh. Iskanderova, Saipov, Kdyrniyazov O.-Sh., 2009, Pp. 145-146).

A curious feature of the stratigraphy of the Golden Horde city is the small thickness of the cultural layer. In particular, according to the observations of the authors of the excavations, "life on the territory of the "Southern Site" functioned for a short time - from the late 13th to the early 14th centuries.” (Kdyrniyazov M.-Sh. 2001, P.97)

In the meantime, during excavations (1987-1989, 1994-1997, 2006-2007) in various places of the Golden Horde Mizdakhkan, buildings and samples of material culture of the Temurid period were discovered.

3.3 Excavations of the necropolis in the southern part of the Eastern Hill

In 1962, 1964, 1965, the archaeological expedition of the detachment of the Karakalpak branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR under the leadership of V.N. Yagodin carried out its work in the the southern part of the Eastern Hill. As a result of the excavations, a significant number of burial structures and burials of different times from the 2nd to the 14th centuries CE were uncovered.

Two large typological groups were identified. The first group - burials of pre-cleaned bones in a ceramic sarcophagus, ceramic vessels, ceramic ossuaries. Date: 3rd century – mid 8th century. Nauses (structures made of adobe bricks) for installing ossuaries date back to the 6th-8th centuries. The second group is burials in wooden coffins (second half of the 8th century – 14th century). Judging by the stratigraphy, these groups represent two chronological stages and reflect the religious views of the inhabitants of the city/region: the first stage being Zoroastrianism; and the second stage being Islam (Yagodin, Khojaiov. 1970, Pp. 30–31, 127, Pl..).

In the 1980s, excavations at the Mizdakhkan necropolis were continued in small areas (Khojaniyazov G., N. Yusupov N., Kdyrniyazov M.-Sh. … 1989)

3.4 Excavations of the northern part of the Eastern Hill

Archaeological work in the northern part of the Eastern Hill was mainly devoted to the study of various architectural religious structures - mausoleums, khanaqahs (Khakimniyazov. 2013, Pp. 104–110; Khojayov, Turebekov. 2013. pp. 98-112).

A complex of buildings was excavated on the northern edge of the Eastern Hill, called the “White khanaqah” due to the presence of ganch clay plastering. The mosque is dated to the 12th century. In addition to the khanaqah, it includes a domed structure (mausoleum?), two mosques located west of the khanaqah, several utility rooms. Judging by the conformity of the layouts of the buildings, the first mosque was built at the same time as the khanaqah. The mosque was referred to as the “winter” one. It is a rectangular room with a flat ceiling resting on columns. The entrance to the mosque was from the north; a mihrab niche was identified in the center of the southern wall. The mosque is dated to the 12th century.

A second mosque was added to the winter mosque from the west - larger in area, which was referred to as the “summer” mosque. It is a spacious courtyard, the flat ceiling of which rested on wooden columns with stone bases. In the “summer” mosque, on the southern wall, the mihrab has been cleared, which is decorated with a carved clay frieze with an Arabic inscription. The handwriting of the inscription clearly dates the mihrab, and accordingly, the construction of the “summer” mosque, too, to the 12th century. (reading by M.M. Babajanov: Architectural Epigraphy. 2015, P. 40).
During the Golden Horde period, the mosque was repaired; the previously existing mihrab was blocked; a niche was cut out in the southern wall, in which a new mihrab was made. According to the coins data, this period of the mosque’s existence is dated to the first half of the 14th century. (Kdyrniyazov M-Sh., 1989, P. 119-120; Khojaniyazov. 2018, Pp. 314-319).

a fragment of the interior of the Mazlumkhan-sulu monument

Great attention of archaeologists was paid to the Mazlumkhan-Sulu monument. In the mid-1960s, excavations were carried out around Mazlumkhan-Sulu, as a result of which above-ground premises adjacent to the monument were discovered. In the 1980s, employees of the archaeology department of the KK FAN UzSSR Yu.P. Manylov, M.-Sh. Kdyrniyazov, B. Saipanov uncovered burials located inside the structure (three burials from the Golden Horde period) (Kdyrniyazov M-Sh. 1989. Pp.25-26).

The archaeological study of Mazlumkhan-sulu was conducted by G. Khojaniyazov. He discovered an underground passage (?). According to the researcher, the monument initially functioned as a khanaqah, and later, in connection with the burials of the 14th century, it acquired the significance of a mausoleum (Turebekov. 2019, p. 15) In 1986–1989, the Khalifa Erezhep site became the object of a comprehensive study by the Research Institute of Restoration (Tashkent).

Based on the obtained materials, a “Summary Report was prepared (not published). On the issue of dating the site, K.S. Kryukov, who prepared a review of the report, and came to the conclusion that Khalifa Erezhep was built “not earlier than the second half of the 12th century and not later than the early 13th century” (Summary Report. 1989, p. 2).

construction of the Yeredzhep Caliph

Later, a member of the research group G. Khozhaniyazov proposed dating the construction of the Khalifa Erezhep to the 11th - early 12th centuries. From his point of view, it was originally a mosque-madrasah. In the 14th century, after burials were made in the building, the monument became a mausoleum. In the 15th - 18th centuries, when the dome collapsed, the resulting ruins began to be used for burials (Khozhaniyazov. 1994, pp. 12-13). The question of the dating and purpose of the Khalifa Eredzhep was considered in the article by T.K. Mkrtychev and B.M. Babadzhnov.

The analysis showed that the monument was built in the late 12th - early 13th centuries in pre-Mongol times. The lack of data does not yet allow us to determine its original purpose. In the first half of the 14th century, the monument was repaired, and a ktaba with an Arabic inscription was included in the design of the façade. Some fragments of tombstone decoration also date back to this time, based on which it can be assumed that at this stage Khalifa Eredzhep was a mausoleum. Epigraphic materials allow us to say that a significant representative of the Sufi community was buried in Khalifa Eredzhep (Mkrtychev, Babadzhnov, 2024. Pp. 100-103).

In addition, in the northern part of the Eastern Hill, as a result of excavations, the remains of two "typical" mausoleums of the Khorezmshah period were discovered. Thus, the anonymous mausoleum No. 1 is dated to the early 13th century. (Khakimniyazov, 2013,Pp. 116-117).
Construction of the anonymous mausoleum No. 2, is dated to the 12th century - early 13th century, (Khojaiyov, Turebekov. 2013, P. 98). In the 14th century, repair work was carried out in mausoleum No. 2. Based on the results of excavations, the construction of the Kyrk-Shopan mausoleum was dated to the 13th-14th centuries. Researchers found 7 burials inside, five of which were made in coffins (Khojaiyov, Turebekov. 2013, P.98).

The Nameless Mausoleum

Shamun-nabi Mausoleum

Another architectural monument was located in the center of the Eastern Hill - the Shamun-nabi mausoleum. This structure, made of adobe and fired bricks, was rectangular in its plan view (28 x 5.2 m), and was covered with seven identical domes. Inside the mausoleum there was a nearly 25-meter tombstone, which turned out to be a cenotaph. Yu. V. Knorozov dated the construction of the mausoleum to the late 17th - early 18th centuries. (Knorozov. 1949, p. 89). At the same time, V. N. Yagodin and T. K. Khojayov proposed a later date for Shamun-nabi - the 19th century. (Yagodin, Khojayov. 1970, P. 10). At the same time, G. Khozhaniyazov and N. Yusupov believe that the monument was built much earlier in the 13th-14th centuries, and rebuilt in the 18th-19th centuries (Khojaniyazov, Yusupov. 1994, p. 15; Khozhaniyazov, 1997).

In 2018, during restoration work, the mausoleum was completely destroyed and a new building was erected in its place. To the north of the Shamun-nabi mausoleum is the natural hill of Jumart-Kassab, considered to be holy place.

In 1987-1991, G. Khojaniyazov and N. Yusupov conducted archaeological excavations of the hill. As a result, an ossuary, fragments of ossuaries were found, the remains of eleven so-called "burial enclosures" were uncovered, in which about 30 burials were located, as an option for offerings to the holy place. Muslim times: burials in burial chambers lined with mud bricks.

According to the researchers, the burials belonged to noble representatives of the local population. The excavation materials are dated in a wide range from the 3rd to the 14th centuries AD (Khojaniyazov. 2019, pp. 179-214).

Currently, archaeological work on the Eastern Hill is not possible, as it is almost entirely occupied by a modern-day cemetery.

4. Epigraphy

The first epigraphic materials from the Mizdakhkan site that attracted the attention of researchers were the inscriptions on the tombstones from Mazlumkhan-Sulu (Nekrasov. 1930, Pp. 583-588). Subsequently, a primary study of the epigraphic finds obtained during the reconstruction project of Khalifa Erezhep was conducted. Transcription by B. Babajanov (Summary Report, 1989 P.97-102). A broad study of the epigraphic materials of the Karakalpakstan sites began in the mid-2010s and is currently ongoing. These include epigraphy from Mizdakhkan.

An analysis of epigraphic materials gives grounds to speak about the residence of a Sufi community of followers of Sheikh Sulayman al-Haddadi al-Musawi (d. 1261) in Mizdakhkan in the 14th-15th centuries. It is possible that one of the prominent representatives of the Sufi community was buried in the Khalifa of Erezhep in the 14th century. (Iskanderova, Babajanov, 2014, pp. 66-70; Architectural Epigraphic. 2015; Babajanov, 2023, p. 203-221; Mkrtychev, Babajanov, 2024, p.42-61; Mkrtychev, Babajanov, 2024, p. 100-103)