Dynamics of the
city development

The history of the development

The history of the development of the city of Mizdakhkan is based on the study of archaeological materials; analysis of the topography of the sites included in the Mizdakhkan complex; study of epigraphic finds and written sources; comparison with the historical context.

Gyaur-Kala.aerial photo

Gyaur-Kala

According to archaeological excavations, the ancient part of the city is located on the territory of the of the Gyaur-Kala citadel (fortress)

Archaeologists date the earliest layers to the 4th century. And the latest ones are dated to the early 13th century. The thickness of the cultural layer on the settlement reaches as much as 10 meters. Unfortunately, we have no evidence of what the city looked like in the early stages of its existence. However, apparently, already at that time a citadel wall was erected around a certain territory (8 hectares) and the subsequent development of the city occurred within the boundaries of this wall.

The city fortress wall was reinforced by ten projecting towers.On the eastern side there was a city gate, reinforced by a bastion.

panorama of the ancient
settlement of Mizdakhkan

Researches

The study of the topography of Gyaur-Kala, including that of its historical development, has never, in effect, been undertaken. According to the results of the excavations, two late complexes of structures stand out and can be distinguished, which are located in the southeastern part of the site. Researchers interpreted them as citadels: the eastern and the western ones.

The eastern citadel dates back to the 9th - early 10th centuries. While the western citadel, which is considered a palace building, dates back to the 11th - early 13th centuries.

The materials discovered at the site allow us to assert that Gyaur-Kala is the city of Mizdakhkan, frequently mentioned in Muslim sources (road guides) of the 10th century. Mizdakhkan is mentioned by such authors, as Ahmad ibn Rustah (903-913), al-Istakhri (930-933), al-Maqdisi (985) who referred to it in their works. The most detailed information about the city is given by al-Maqdisi (10th century): “Mizdakhkan is large (city), and, around it, there are 12,000 fortifications and a vast township (rustak).

The other cities (Khorezm, except for Gurganj, the main city) are populated and fortified, but Mizdakhkan is the largest of them. It is close in area (satkh) to Jurjaniya (Urgench), and especially that part which is surrounded by a wall (hisar)”.

the ruins of the mausoleum of Khalifa Yeredzhep on the Eastern hill of Mizdakhkan

What functions did the city perform?

In the generalizing literature on Khorezm, Mizdakhkan is considered to be the trading and artisanal town (rabad). However, with the exception of one excavated early medieval site, which is interpreted as a tannery, no other traces of craft production have been discovered at Gyaur-Kala. Just as no materials have been found at Gyaur-Kala that could indicate intensive trade.

If we try to answer the question of what functions the city performed, which existed in one place for more than a thousand years, we can assume that Mizdakhkan was an urban center that controlled the distribution of water in the region. This may explain the presence of two citadels of different times, which were not palace-like structures, as previous researchers had believed, but the location of a certain “administration” that controlled water supply in the region.

The Mongol Conquest

The end of Gyaur-Kala's existence as a city is associated with the Mongol conquest of Khorezm in the early 13th century. According to the sources, in 1221, after a long siege, the Mongols captured the capital of the Khorezmshah state - the city of Gurganj (the modern-day Kunya-Urgench), located at a distance of 15 km from Mizdakhkan.

The capture of Gurganj was accompanied by the destruction of the levee and the irrigation system in the region. Apparently, at the same time, the water supply to Gyaur-kala was disrupted, which made it impossible to keep inhabiting the city. As a result, it was abandoned by its residents.

view of the area

The area between the Eastern and the Western hills

From the first third of the 13th century, the urban life in Mizdakhkan was carried on on the plain between the two hills - the Western and the Eastern ones.

In the preceding Khorezmshah period, there were suburban estates here. And when the military upheavals caused by the Mongol conquest gave way to a certain political stability, which could be attributed to the reign of Jochi's grandson, Mengu-Timur (1226-1282), a new city was formed on this plain.

Like most cities of the Golden Horde, the Mizdakhkan of the Mongol period did not have any fortifications, which significantly complicated the pinpointing of its boundaries. It is believed that its area was approximately 80 hectares. Archaeological work on the site revealed residential areas and remains of handicraft industry - pottery workshops, and, which appears to be most unusual, wineries.

panorama of the ancient settlement of Mizdakhkan

Resume

In the so-called “Southern Settlement” of the Golden Horde Mizdakhkan, a room was excavated, which researchers interpreted as a Jami Mosque. The stratigraphy obtained during the excavations of residential areas provides a maximum of two stages of existence of the structures without discontinuation in the 13th-14th centuries. Judging by the excavations, by the late 14th century - early 15th century, the city (or a significant part of it) fell into disrepair.

There could have been several reasons behind that. Firstly, the detrimental consequences of the several military campaigns of Timur in Khorezm, which he conducted in the late 14th century. Secondly, in the late 14th century there was a turn in the bed of one of the tributaries of the Amu Darya - Daryalyk - over to the west, and this resulted in Mizdakhkan being left without sufficient water supply. Meanwhile, in a number of places at the site, remains of buildings and material culture product samples from the Temurid period were discovered, as the latest evidence of urban life of this area in the 15th century.

Eastern Hill

The Eastern Hill is a natural elevation formed of sedimentary rocks (coquina), with a total area of about 100 hectares. The Eastern Hill consists of two parts: the southern part is about 30 hectares; and the northern part is about 70 hectares.

Southern part of Eastern Hill. Archaeological study of the southern part of the Eastern Hill showed that in the ancient times and Middle Ages, this place was the site of a cemetery of the city of Mizdakhkan. Researchers distinguish between two large stages in the existence of the urban necropolis, which are determined by the religion, which was common in the region at that time. The transition from the first stage of the necropolis to the second one is associated with a change in religion and, accordingly, the burial rite.

The old building of the shamun-nabi mazar.East Hill

First/pre-Muslim stage: burials of pre-cleaned bones. 3rd century - first half of the 8th century

According to the materials obtained, the earliest burial dates back to the 3rd century. This is a ceramic sarcophagus in which the bones of a young woman were buried along with the grave goods (jewelry in the polychrome “Sarmatian” style, a bronze cauldron, a bronze mirror, some glass vessels)

Researchers believe that the sarcophagus reflects the influence of the Parthian Mesopotamia.

Other burials of the first stage are burials of pre-cleaned bones, which were contained either in ceramic vessels or in ceramic ossuaries. Some of the ossuaries were placed in small rectangular structures (nauses) made of adobe bricks.

found sarcophagi and
ossuary

It is believed that such a burial rite pertains to the local variety of Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism is the religion of the ancient Iranians, which became widespread in various regions of Central Asia, including Khorezm. The features of Central Asian Zoroastrianism are the subjects of extensive scientific discussions.

The second stage (Muslim): corpse placing burial.

The second half of the 8th - the 14th century. The rite of corpse placing burial is adopted in Islam. It should be noted that very few of the deceased during the second stage were buried in wooden coffins. It can be assumed that they were representatives of the Christian community. Burials from later than the 14th century were not discovered in the excavated part of the necropolis.The materials obtained from the necropolis allow us to pose a question and to make an assumption.

Gyaur-Kala research

The question is as follows: why do the researchers of Gyaur-Kala date the most ancient layers to the 4th century, while the earliest burial dates back to the 3rd century CE?

There are two possible answers to this question.
1/ Before the 3rd century CE, the city necropolis was located in another place, which has not yet been discovered.
2/ The foundation of the city of Mizdakhkan occurred much later than the 4th century BCE and its beginning is synchronized with the first stage of the functioning of the city cemetery - the 3rd century CE.

The assumption that arises on the basis of the analysis of the burials of the necropolis concerns the general status of the Eastern Hill. The stratigraphy of the excavated burials shows that there is no chronological break between the first and second stages. This suggests that the cardinal change of religion among the townspeople (from Zoroastrianism to Islam) did not lead to a change in the burial place - the city cemetery remained in the same place. Thus, it can be assumed that the place where the city necropolis was located had a high sacred status, which did not change with the change of religion.

Despite the remark of the necropolis researchers about the limited area of the excavations, it is worth noting that there are no burials dated to a time later than the 14th century. This directly indicates that in the late 14th century the Golden Horde city fell into disrepair. Let us recall that archaeologists have noted minor areas of more recent habitation from the Timurid period on the Golden Horde city’s territory.
At present, further study of the northern part of the Eastern Hill is impossible due to the location of a modern cemetery on this territory.

Northern part of Eastern Hill

Studying the available written sources, V.V. Bartold pinpointed the medieval city of Mizdakhkan at the Eastern Hill, where the Shamun-nabi mausoleum is located. Along with this mausoleum, there are several medieval architectural monuments on the northern part of the Eastern Hill, as well as a sanctuary - the Jumart-Kassab hill.

According to the excavation materials, the northern part of the Eastern Hill, as well as the southern one, was partially occupied by a pre-Muslim time cemetery. This can be evidenced by the finds of an ossuary and fragments of ossuaries on the Jumart-Kassab elevation. There is evidence that Muslims began to be buried here as early as the 9th century - burials in pits lined with mud bricks.

According to G. Khozhaniyazov, the burials belonged to the local elite. In total, more than thirty burials from the 9th-14th centuries were discovered in the upper layers of Jumart-Kassab.Probably, the importance of the necropolis on the Eastern Hill of Mizdahkan as a holy place increased during the era of the strengthening of the power of the late Anushteginids in the late 12th-early 13th centuries.

On the Eastern Hill, the remains of small, separate mausoleums with square layouts were excavated. Thus, the anonymous mausoleum No. 2 dates back to the 12th - early 13th centuries. In the 14th century, repair work was carried out in the mausoleum. Anonymous mausoleum No. 1 was built in the early 13th century. It can be assumed that there are other burial structures from this time on the Eastern Hill.

It should be noted that the mausoleums of the capital city of Gurganj of the 12th century are characterized by the presence of a separate portal and hipped roofs (Mausoleum of Sultan Ala ad-Din Tekesh / late 12th - early 13th centuries).

However, there is no information about the portals and ceilings on the excavated mausoleums on Mizdakhkan. Along with the burial structures on the Eastern Hill in the 12th century there is an architectural complex known in scientific literature as "White khanaqah".

The complex includes a number of buildings, one of which, judging by the layout, was undoubtedly a khanaqah: a central hall and four isolated rooms at the four corners. Apparently, at the same time, a mosque was built west of the khanaqah, which was called the “winter” mosque.

It is a rectangular room with a flat ceiling resting on columns. The entrance to the mosque was from the north; a mihrab niche was recorded in the center of the southern wall. The mosque is dated to the 12th century. Later (the chronology has not yet been established) a square domed room was built between the mosque and the khanaqah, for the construction of which the southwestern corner of the khanaqah was destroyed. It can be assumed that this structure was a mausoleum

After some time, a second mosque was added to the “winter” mosque from the west - a larger one, which was called the “summer” one. At the heart of the mosque is a large room with a flat ceiling resting on wooden columns resting on stone bases.

In the “summer” mosque, on the southern wall, the mihrab has been cleared, which is decorated with a carved clay frieze with an Arabic inscription. The handwriting of the inscription clearly dates the mihrab, and accordingly, the construction of the “summer” mosque to the 12th century (reading by M.M. Babadzhanov).

Later, the mosque was repaired; the mihrab of the previous period was blocked, a niche was cut out in the southern wall, in which a new mihrab was made. According to the coins data, this reconstruction of the mosque dates back to the 14th century.

Another example of the construction of a monumental structure during the reign of the Anushteginids is the monument of Khalifa Erezhep.

Based on the results of excavations at the site, it was possible to establish the presence of two stages of its existence: Stage 1 - the construction of the monument, which dates back to the late 12th century - early 13th century; Stage 2 - repair, in particular, the repair of the facade, dated to the late 13th-14th centuries. There is no data regarding the original purpose of Khalifa Erezhep. During the second stage (13th-14th centuries), a tombstone was located inside the structure. Accordingly, the shrine of Khalifa Erezhep shrine served as a mausoleum.

The construction of the Kirk-Shopan mausoleum dates back to the 13th-14th centuries. Currently, the remains of the mausoleum have been restored to a complete building and the object does not have an authentic appearance.
In the 14th century, a structure known as Mazlumkhan-Sulu was built on the Eastern Hill of Mizdakhkan. The monument has an unusual design - about 2/3 of the structure (a quadrangle and a system of squinches or trumpet arcs) are buried in the rock of the hill before reaching the octagonal dome.

The question of the original purpose of Mazlumkhan-Sulu is debated in scientific literature. The presence of three tombstones in the structure gave reason to consider it a mausoleum. The characteristics of the material (the building is entirely built of fired brick) and the richness of the decor led one of the researchers to assume that it was a palace.

In the meantime, there is evidence that allows us to interpret this structure as a khanaka. Orientalist B. M. Babajanov drew attention to the waqf charter kept in the funds of the Ichan-Kal'a reserve (Khiva), which states that land plots and canals were assigned in favor of (for the maintenance of) two khanakas of the Sufi Sheikh Sulayman al-Haddadi (d. 1261). Written sources report that around the mid-13th century, during the reign of the first Jochids, the Eastern hill of Mizdahkan was chosen by a group of Sufis led by Sulayman al-Haddadi. Sulayman Haddadi was one of the "leading sheikhs" and was a blacksmith, which is why he received the nickname al-Haddadi (blacksmith). Sheikh Sulayman achieved "high degrees of perfection" and had the ability to work miracles (karamat).

He settled near the village of Khodjeyli, “from which one must go south.” “… on the way there is a mountain – which is called Mizdakhkan. There, on a platform, was a dilapidated building in which they [the Sufis] performed their rituals.” According to B. Babajanov, before his death (1261), Sulayman al-Haddadi and his followers did not enjoy much support from the local authorities. At the same time, it is possible that the previously mentioned 12th century khanaka belonged to their fraternity.

The situation changed from the moment when the Sufi community of al-Haddadi's followers became the object of attention of the governor of Khorezm and Dashti Kipchak Kutluk-Timur (ruled 1321-1336), who allocated funds for the construction of two khanakas (one of them on Mizdakhkan). He provided them with a solid fund of waqf properties, the guardianship of which he assigned to the descendants of al-Haddadi. One waqf document indicates the location of the khanaka as “at the foot of (the hill of) Mizdakhkan”. Or more specifically: “at the slope of the Mizdakhkan hill. And it is the northern (part of the hill) ...". B. Babajanov, having analyzed the source, came to the conclusion that this description is quite consistent with the location of Mazlukhan Sulu.

The presence of a burial inside the Mazlumkhan-Sulu monument reflects the usual process of long-term functioning of the khanaka, when the sacred nature of the structure becomes the reason why this place is chosen for the burial of significant persons.

One of the most recent memorial monuments, which is located on the territory of the northern part of the Eastern Hill, is the Shamun-nabi mausoleum.

Inside the mausoleum there is a tombstone more than 25 m long, which is a cenotaph. Initially, the mausoleum was dated to the 17th-18th centuries. Then the researchers discovered the early part of the structure, which they dated to the 13th - 14th centuries. However, the mausoleum acquired its modern appearance in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, when it was rebuilt and acquired the appearance of a rectangular building covered with seven domes. The existing structure is the result of the reconstruction of the historic one, carried out in 2018.

To the north of the Shamun-nabi mausoleum is the sacred elevation of Jumart-Kasab around which, according to the tradition, rituals associated with fertility were performed.

There is a belief that a barren woman who rolls down from the elevation will give birth to a child. It has been suggested that the construction of the Shamun-nabi mausoleum was determined by its proximity to Jumart-Kasab, which created a single sacred space. The archaeological study of the Jumart-Kasab elevation revealed the presence of ossuaries (fragments), as well as burials from the 9th-14th centuries

Later the elevation was included in the ritual actions carried out on the territory of the northern part of the Eastern Hill. Despite the presence of archaeological remains from the 12th century on the hill, the question of when the cult around Jumart-Kasab was formed still remains open.

Analyzing the existing structures and data from written sources, it can be assumed that in the 12th-14th centuries, during the reign of the late Anushteginids and early Jochids, the northern part of the Eastern Hill was a sacred territory near the city. It is worth noting that initially the city was located on Gyaur-kale, and in the early 13th century it moved to the plain between the Eastern and Western hills.

On the territory of the northern part of the Eastern hill there were mausoleums that belonged to representatives of the local elite, which over time became a place of worship; at least two Sufi khanakas that gathered the students of Sheikh Suleiman Haddi; the mosques (in the suburbs), most likely intended for the followers of the Sheikh and pilgrims visiting the local holy places. Thus, we can talk about the formation in the 13th-14th centuries of a certain memorial and cult center on the northern peak of the Eastern hill.

By the late 14th century, the Golden Horde city fell into disrepair. The reasons for this were Timur’s military campaigns in Khorezm and a change in the water supply conditions in this area. The decline of the city led to the fact that the so-called "White Khanaka", as well as the mosques on the northern part of the Eastern Hill ceased to function. At that time, the flow of pilgrims to the memorial and worship center decreases, but does not cease completely. At least, this is evidenced by the extension buildings adjacent to the facade of the Khalifa Erezhep, presumably constructed in the 15th-16th centuries. These extensions included both residential quarters in which the ishan, who oversaw the monument, could live, and the rooms for ablutions intended for the pilgrims.

a sacred place

The most significant thing for the history of Mizdakhkan is that the northern part of the Eastern Hill has retained its reputation as a “sacred” and prestigious place for burials. This determines the presence of a large number of burials and family crypts (the sagana), which may be dated to the 18th-19th centuries. Mizdakhkan is still an active cemetery.

Summary

Thus, summarizing the history of the Mizdakhkan settlement complex, we can imagine the following picture.

In one of the regions of the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, where there was an extensive irrigation network, in the 4th century BCE, a city was built (Western Hill/Gyaur-Kala), which was entrusted with the function of monitoring the condition of the canals and the distribution of water. Since at least the 3rd century CE, we have known the location of the necropolis of this city (the southern part of the Eastern Hill) and possibly the Jumart-Kassab elevation on the northern part of the Eastern Hill). Judging by the ossuary burial rite, the inhabitants of the city were adherents of the local version of Zoroastrianism.

In the early 7th century, the Arabs came to the region and brought Islam. Around the middle of the 7th century, there was a change in the religious affiliation of the city's inhabitants. Apparently, most of them became Muslims. This is evidenced by the change in the burial rite at the city cemetery, which occurred in the second half of the 7th century. It is fundamentally important to note that despite the arrival of a new religion, the location of the city cemetery did not change.

Various Arab road builders of the 10th century call this city Mizdakhkan and describe it as a large city with settlements in the area.

Around the 12th century, a memorial and cult center, including necropolis (corpses in rectangular/trapezoidal chambers lined with mud bricks), mausoleums, as well as mosques, khanakahs, began to form on the northern part of the Eastern Hill. In the late 12th century - early 13th century (in pre-Mongol times), the construction of the Khalifa Erezhep took place. The original purpose of the monument has not yet been determined.

In the early 13th century, the region was captured by the Mongols. Apparently, they destroyed the water supply system to Mizdakhkan (Western Hill/Gyaur-Kala) and the city moved to the plain between two hills (Eastern and Western). In the city, handicraft production and a quarter mosque were recorded in the new location. The functional purpose of the city probably changed.

In the middle of the 13th century, the territory of the northern part of the Eastern Hill, where the memorial and cult center was formed, became a place of residence for Sufis, followers of Sheikh Sulayman al-Haddadi (died in 1261). In the first half of the 14th century, his followers received the support of the Jochid governor of Khorezm, Kutluk-Timur (ruled in 1321-1336). He allocated funds for the construction of a khanaka for the Sufi community on the northern edge of the Eastern Hill (Mazlumkhan Sulu), and provided the khanaka with funds from waqf lands. In the meantime, the monument to Khalifa Erezhep was being repaired, the facade was decorated with new decor, and tombstones appeared inside. The monument began to function as a mausoleum visited by pilgrims.

In the late 14th century, the city, located on the plain between the Western and Eastern hills, fell into disrepair. In the city cemetery (the southern part of the Eastern hill), burials later than the 14th century were not recorded.

However, judging by the available materials, life was still preserved in certain areas of the city in the early 15th century. No later traces of habitation were found in this area.
Obviously, simultaneously with the process of desolation of the city, the flow of pilgrims to the monuments of the memorial and cult center began to decrease, the number of Sufis living in the northern part of the Eastern hill decreased. Certain changes occurred in the structure of the memorial and cult center. Thus, the mosques ("winter" and "summer"), the so-called "white khanaka" ceased to function. The deceased are buried in the Mazlumkhan-Sulu khanaka, and tombstones are erected. The khanaka takes on the functions of a mausoleum visited by pilgrims. In front of the facade of the Khalifa Erezhep, a complex of small utility rooms is built, which functions until the destruction of the facade wall in the 17th-18th centuries.

The final desolation of the city in the 15th century could not change the status of the northern part of the Eastern Hill, which was perceived as a cult place with a prestigious cemetery. At least, on the territory of the Eastern Hill there are many family crypts (sagana), possibly dating back to the 18th - early 20th centuries, and the hill itself is still an active cemetery.

It is not yet very clear from what time the Jumart-Kasab hill acquired a sacred character associated with the cult of fertility, which continues to this day. Probably, in the late 18th – early 19th century, the status of a holy place was secured by the construction of the Shamun-nabi mausoleum nearby. Despite the fact that today the mausoleum is no longer authentic (it was replaced by a contemporary structure), local residents still make pilgrimages to it.